Japanese Concept of Time
Japanese sense of time is multilayered. On
the surface the days and hours are arranged according to Western style clocks
and calendars, but beneath there flows several Japanese style currents of time.
They are based on the annual cycle of seasons, on the historical periods of the
reigning emperors and on various kinds of commemorative rituals held throughout
the year. In the Western world the traditional view of time is linear, but in
Japan time is considered to revolve endlessly along the cycle of birth, life,
death and rebirth. Time is not “made by God” but is rather considered as a
natural element, which can manifest itself only in the moment called “Now”.
In Japan time was officially measured for the
first time by emperor Tenji (668-671), who set up a water clock in Ōtsu-miya
shrine in Ōmi (present Shiga pref.). From that time on, water clocks and often also astronomical devices were
located all over the country in government offices. Science and calendar making
followed mainly Chinese models until the latter half of 17th century. The first purely Japanese
calendar, Jōkyō-reki, was
finally published in 1685, after which its use spread widely over the country.
This calendar is even today in use as a base for making Japanese kyū-reki calendars.
In Edo-period (1603-1867) the Japanese
used to divide their day in 12 two-hour sections called “koku”. The kokus were
named according to the 12 Chinese astrological animals. In the wintertime one koku was shorter (1.50h) than in the
height of summer (2.40h). Time followed nature, and even mechanical clocks were
designed to show the seasonal changes. Time was measured also by burning incense
sticks and with sundials. But in the hearts of people more important than
measuring the time, was undoubtedly the quality of time: especially the quality
of the leisure time. In the old city of Edo (now
Tokyo) the social and economical conditions of the middle
class grew steadily in affluence. Eager to be educated, uplifted or merely
amused they soon begun patronizing the arts and developing literature of their
own. The concept of ukiyo, the “Floating World” was born, and became an
expression of a certain form of life that one chose or drifted into. Transitory
existence of nature and human life gave inspiration to many artists and
Japanese visual culture took the form we now know best.
Meiji-restoration (1868) opened the
country to a flood of Western influences, which soon spread over all sections
of Japanese life. Time was forced into precisely ticking 24-hour clocks and old
moon-calendars were replaced with Western solar calendars. But in spite of all
modernization many old concepts of time survived. They are even now hidden in
the daily life of the Japanese. For example, the images of the 12 astrological
animals are commonly used in New Year greeting cards, and the calendar dates are
often marked with emperor-years (2009= Heisei 21st). Even the old belief of rokuyō exists, and the “good and bad days” for doing things are marked in many table
diaries. In the present world of ever spreading globalisation Japan cradles her
deeply rooted old traditions with love and respect.
Fleeting Moments captured in Woodcuts
Ukiyo-e woodblock prints are probably the
most famous form of Japanese printmaking. They were made to capture the
transient moments of pleasure and excitement, and to inform the novelty seeking
citizens about new seasonal fashions. They introduce us closely to ukiyo, the floating world of theatres
and teahouses, but also give us an incredible wide and accurate picture of the common
daily life in old Japan. In landscape prints we can see the Japanese love of
nature and the importance of the cycle of the four seasons. Time is often
visualized through plant life and flowers –plum blossoms are the sign of
spring waiting just around the corner, wisteria gives us a feeling of early
summer and chrysanthemum is known as a flower of autumn as well as an Imperial symbol.
A lot of information is also hidden in the patterns of the kimonos. They tell us the age and social rank of the wearer, what
season she/he is enjoying, and sometimes even the name of the person in a form
of a family crest, mon. Time is made visible
also in various pictures of children. Fleeting golden moments of childhood are
pictured in scenes, where mother and child watch together how a firefly, soap
bubble or a bird flies nearby – all are symbols of soon disappearing beauty
and youth.
Ukiyo-e prints tell about the old times,
but not many admirers of them know that the splendour of nishiki-e (multi-coloured brocade prints) owes a great deal to actual
calendar making. In the middle of the 18th century it became a big
fashion in Edo to produce picture calendars as collectors items. Wealthy
townspeople competed yearly over who has the most interesting design and
luxurious colouring in their production. Having money to pay for the best
quality papers and pigments, and being able to hire talented artists made developing
of new carving and printing techniques possible. Birth of nishiki-e is marked to the year 1765 when Suzuki Harunobu designed
the first multicoloured woodcut calendar and thus contributed to the invention
of the excellent Japanese registration mark, kentō.
The picture calendars, egoyomi, in Edo were very different to the
calendars we use today. The weekdays
were not marked in them at all. People were more interested in knowing the order
of “long and short months” of the coming year. Egoyomi calendars were usually designed as an elaborate picture
puzzle. In them we can sense the playful mind of the citizens and have a vision
about their flexible concept of time. On the other hand, more detailed black
and white calendars were produced for the use of government offices and for agricultural
purposes. They were based on Chinese astrological models and carried also the
important information of “good and bad” days. First these types of calendars appeared
in Japan already during the Heian period (794-1185).
Along the calendars and ukiyo-e prints also other types of prints
were produced to please the enthusiastic collectors. They are called surimono, which means literarily “a
printed thing”. Term surimono covers a
variety of private print productions starting from poems and calligraphy up to
personal greetings and shop advertisements. Picture calendars also generally
fall into this category. They were exchangeable items within collector groups
and the busiest time for producing them was usually in the end of the year. New
year was the best time for new publications.
Besides the private print production woodblock
printing technique was widely used in making all kinds of daily life items.
From the blocks came out decorative papers, games for children, souvenir
prints, charms for good luck and a variety of picture books. One highly
interesting strand of production is kawaraban newsprints. They were single sheet reports on political events, social
upheavals and big disasters such as earthquakes and fires. They also reported scandalous
events such as vendettas and suicides, and even about ghosts and monsters. The
first kawaraban newsprint was made in
1615 reporting on a siege of the Osaka castle by the armed forces of the
Tokugawa family. Kawaraban was
replaced by modern newspapers in the Meiji era (1868-1912). Many marvellous treasures
can be found among these intriguing historical prints, made by unknown artists and artisans.
Eternal Problem of Eternity
Fear of death and wish for everlasting
happiness and prosperity has created many religions in the world. In Japan
Shintoism and Buddhism give the basic guidelines to life and death. Shintō is the natural spirituality
of the Japanese people. It is characterized by the worship of nature and
ancestors, with a strong focus on ritual purity. The introduction of writing in
the 5th century from China and Buddhism in the 6th century via Korea had a
profound impact on unifying and compiling all Shinto beliefs. Buddhism was
accustomed to fit the Japanese ways of thinking and gradually it merged into seamless
coexistence with Shinto. Nowadays most "life" events are handled by
Shinto and "death" or "afterlife" events are dealt with
Buddhism. For example, it is typical to celebrate the birth of a child at a
Shinto shrine, while funeral arrangements are generally dictated by Buddhist
tradition.
Question of the soul and its eternal
existence has been one of the main themes in religious debate throughout human
history. According to the old Japanese Shinto belief soul departs the body in
death and goes to the spirit world, where it changes into an ancestor spirit or
into a guardian deity (god of a certain place or thing). If not properly
purified in death, the soul might also change into an evil spirit, which causes
trouble and disasters to living humans. Even guardian deities can become bad
tempered at times, so they have to be worshipped in right ways. Shintoism does
not give any detailed explanations about the afterlife or about the world of
the dead. It puts more emphasis on joy and prosperity of the living people. Being
happy in this life, here and now, is more important than to worry about what
happens to you after you are dead.
Buddhism shares the respect towards all
living things in nature with Shinto. It also has its own pantheon of deities
and demons. These similarities make it easy to understand why it was accepted
so smoothly into Japanese animistic and pantheistic lifestyle. Buddhism enriched
the Japanese religious thinking by introducing the concepts of reincarnation
and enlightenment, and by giving instructions and codes how to set oneself free
from worldly sufferings. Visions of afterlife, of Heaven and Hell, were painted
for keeping the people on the right path, and the cause of good luck or
misfortunes was explained by destiny or “karma”. Buddhism offered also a still point,
which promises peace of mind and relief from all pain. It is called mu, the “nothingness”. Life came from it
and dissolved into it in certain intervals. But the most appealing Buddhist
idea for the Japanese was no doubt the concept of mujō, “transient world”. It penetrated into Japanese minds and
became the main source of inspiration for Japanese classical poetry and visual
arts. Understanding the concept of mujō is thus an important key to understanding Japanese culture.
Woodcut print – a Passport to Health and Happiness?
The history of Japanese woodblock
printmaking starts in the late 8th century with printing of
religious texts. The most famous of them is Hyakumantō
Darani, a Buddhist text copied on one million slips of paper each rolled
inside a small wooden pagoda. In the end of the Heian period (794-1185) temples
started also to produce religious picture prints to guide and protect the
people. They were made either by stamping the same small Buddha image to fill
the paper or printing the images from carved woodblocks. Small stamps were easy
to carry around and stamping could be done onto almost any piece of paper.
Repeating the sacred images, especially by stamping, was considered as a method
of praying as well as a form of consoling the deceased.
In Japan printing or copying the same
image or text is believed to create a link to eternity. The act of repetition gives
an eternal soul to the thing being repeated. This works well also with
non-religious themes and ideas. For example, reproducing old ukiyo-e masterpieces with woodcut is not
considered as “copying”, but as an act of keeping both the craftsmanship and
the artist’s brushwork alive through centuries.
Pilgrimages to famous temples became popular
among Japanese people during the 14th and the 15th centuries. The pilgrim journey was sometimes a life long effort, the longest
route being up to 100 holy places. By collecting stamps or souvenir prints from
the temples the pilgrim ensured him/herself a sort of “tangible passport to
heaven”. Prints were also bought for good luck and protection from disasters. Most
of these religious pictures are based on central composition with symmetrical
surroundings. A peaceful solitary figure in the centre brings the viewer into
an immovable spot, closer to the quietness of eternity. All Buddha images carry
certain symbols and signs, which help the believer recognize the deity and
to concentrate on the things he represents. Nowadays
hand printed woodcut charms have become rare, but the custom of buying
protective images from temples and shrines, and pasting them on the walls at
home still exists.
In the Edo period a new kind of
print-related phenomenon took place among the pilgrims. They started to paste
their block printed name labels on the doors and gates of temples and shrines
as a sign that they have visited the place. These votive labels, senjafuda, became gradually more
elaborate and colourful, and soon started to carry also small pictures and
advertisements. They developed into such nice objects that people did not want
to paste them on the gates anymore. Collecting and exchanging senjafuda became a quiet boom, which
spread also outside the city of Edo. About 30 groups of collectors is known to
have existed during the 1830’s, at the height of the fashion.
In the old days (and maybe even now) pictures
had magical powers. A warrior image printed in red ink and pasted on the wall
of the sleeping quarters kept away contagious diseases. A print of a treasure
boat placed under the pillow on the first night of the New Year brought wealth to
the house for the coming year. And the printed characters of shichi-fukujin, the seven gods of luck,
were always good to have around, just in case. It can well be said that woodblock
prints have played a significant role in Japanese life throughout history.
Towards the Future
In the beginning of the 20th century the Japanese woodblock printmaking world was flooded with new foreign art
movements and printing techniques. The strong thread of traditional ukiyo-e
printmaking, tied hundreds of years back in the past, started suddenly getting
thinner and thinner. After the II World War individual artists were engaged in private
quests for global recognition and old teamwork with craftsmen lost its
importance. Woodcut became just another way of personal expression with a
freedom to experiment.
In spite of many efforts to preserve the
old skills and knowledge, the unique method of Japanese ukiyo-e printmaking is
now on the threshold of many big changes. Keeping the analogue printing process
unchanged and alive in the fast speeding whirlpool of digital time is a big
challenge for the remaining handful of professional craftsmen.